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Originally published In Press as doi:10.1074/jbc.M600852200 on May 30, 2006

J. Biol. Chem., Vol. 281, Issue 31, 21629-21639, August 4, 2006
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Sumoylation of CCAAT/Enhancer-binding Protein {alpha} and Its Functional Roles in Hepatocyte Differentiation*Formula

Yoshitaka Sato{ddagger}1, Katsuhide Miyake§2, Hidenori Kaneoka{ddagger}, and Shinji Iijima{ddagger}

From the {ddagger}Department of Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering and §Ecotopia Science Institute, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan

Received for publication, January 27, 2006 , and in revised form, May 17, 2006.


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
The sumoylation of CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins (C/EBPs) by small ubiquitin-related modifier-1 (SUMO-1) has been reported recently. In this study, we investigated the functional role of the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} in the differentiation of hepatocytes. The amount of sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} gradually decreased during the differentiation, which suggests that the sumoylation is important for the control of growth/differentiation especially in the fetal liver. To analyze the function of the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} in liver-specific gene expression, we studied its effects on the expression of the albumin gene. The C/EBP{alpha}-mediated transactivation of the albumin gene was reduced by sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} in primary fetal hepatocytes. The enhancement of C/EBP{alpha}-mediated transactivation by BRG1, a core subunit of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex, was hampered by sumoylation in a luciferase reporter assay. In addition, we discovered that sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} blocked its inhibitory effect on cell proliferation by leading to the disruption of a proliferation-inhibitory complex because of a failure of the sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} to interact with BRG1. BRG1 was recruited to the dihydrofolate reductase promoter in nonproliferating C33a cells but was not detected in proliferating cells where C/EBP{alpha}, BRG1, and SUMO-1 were overexpressed. This result suggests that BRG1 down-regulates the expression of the dihydrofolate reductase gene. These findings provide the insight that SUMO acts as a space regulator, which affects protein-protein interactions.


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
The post-translational modification of proteins by small ubiquitin-related modifiers (SUMOs)3 is an important regulatory mechanism that impinges on many cellular processes (1–4) because of the ability of SUMOs to cause rapid changes in the function and distribution of pre-existing proteins, subcellular structures, and multiprotein complexes (3). For example, the attachment of SUMO-1 to promyelocytic leukemia protein, Sp100, and Daxx is involved in the formation of nuclear subdomains such as the promyelocytic leukemia protein oncogenic domain (5). Moreover, the modification of SUMO-1 prevents the degradation of I{kappa}B{alpha} by competing with ubiquitination (6).

SUMO is a member of a family of ubiquitin-like proteins that can be covalently attached to a large number of proteins. The pathway of sumoylation resembles that of ubiquitination, although the conjugation of SUMO involves a different set of enzymes. SUMO is synthesized as a precursor protein and is processed at the C terminus by a class of cysteine proteases (7). Subsequently, the conjugation of SUMO to proteins involves the ATP-dependent heterodimeric SUMO-activating E1 enzyme (Aos1/Uba2). Once activated, SUMO is transferred to Ubc9, the E2-conjugating enzyme for SUMO, and attached to the {epsilon}-amino group of a specific lysine residue of a target protein that contains the consensus sequence {psi}KXE ({psi}, large hydrophobic residue) recognized by Ubc9 (8). Recently, SUMO E3 ligases have been identified in yeast and mammalian cells. An E3 ligase enhances transfer of the SUMO molecule from E2 to a specific substrate, although E3 ligase is not required for sumoylation in vitro (8). To date, three unrelated proteins have been identified as SUMO E3 ligases: RanBP2, PIAS (protein inhibitor of activated STAT proteins), and the polycomb group protein Pc2 (4). Subramanian et al. (9) reported that PIASy acts as an E3 ligase to enhance the modification of SUMO by a transcription factor, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein {alpha} (C/EBP{alpha}).

Six members of the C/EBP family (C/EBP{alpha} to C/EBP{zeta}) have been isolated and characterized to date (10). They all have a highly conserved basic leucine zipper dimerization domain and a DNA-binding domain at the C terminus. Their divergent N-terminal regions contain the transcriptional regulatory domains and specify their activities (3, 11). C/EBP{alpha} is a central regulator of energy homeostasis as it directly activates the transcription of many metabolically important genes (12) and also plays central roles in the growth and differentiation of hepatocytes (13) and adipocytes (14, 15).

C/EBP{alpha} was reported recently to be sumoylated at the lysine residue of a consensus sequence called synergy control motif or regulatory domain motif. The motif resides in a region that causes an inhibitory effect on its transcriptional activity (9, 11). Subramanian et al. (9) reported that the synergetic response resulting from the recruitment of C/EBP{alpha} to multiple copies of the binding sites was observed only when the synergy control motif was disrupted and that the motif plays important roles in inhibiting the synergetic activation. On the other hand, Kim et al. (11) reported that the regulatory domain motif corresponding to the synergy control motif had a negative regulatory effect on transcription and that the disruption of the regulatory domain motif caused release from the repression. Although they speculated that sumoylation of the consensus motif can affect the inhibitory function by influencing protein-protein interactions, the molecular mechanism by which sumoylation regulates the activity of the transcription factor is poorly understood.

In this study, we investigated the level and functional roles of sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} during the differentiation of hepatocytes. Furthermore, we showed that the BRG1-binding site of C/EBP{alpha} was masked by SUMO-1, and sumoylation dramatically decreased the stimulation of C/EBP{alpha}-mediated transactivation of the liver-specific albumin gene by BRG1, the core subunit of an ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complex (16, 17). This result indicates that modification with SUMO can change the activity of the transcription factor by affecting protein-protein interactions.

In addition, C/EBP{alpha} is a strong inhibitor of cell proliferation. It is reported that the molecular mechanisms of the C/EBP{alpha}-mediated proliferation arrest depend on several pathways (18–22). The action of C/EBP{alpha} falls into the following two categories: direct or p21-dependent inhibition of Cdk activity (nontranscriptional process) and repression of S-phase genes (transcriptional process). Müller et al. (21) recently demonstrated that a functional SWI/SNF complex is required for C/EBP{alpha}-mediated proliferation arrest. Here we also report that sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} failed to induce proliferation arrest because its interaction with BRG1 was inhibited.


   EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Isolation and Culture of Rat Hepatocytes—Adult rat hepatocytes were obtained from male Sprague-Dawley rats (6–7 weeks old; Nihon SLC) by collagenase perfusion, and fetal hepatocytes were isolated from fetuses (embryonic days 13–15, 17 and 18). Cells were cultured essentially as described previously (23).

Reagents and Cells—The anti-C/EBP{alpha} (sc-61), anti-SUMO-1 (sc-9060), anti-E2F1 (sc-866), and anti-E2F4 (sc-193) rabbit polyclonal antibodies, normal rabbit IgG (sc-2027), and horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibodies were purchased from Santa Cruz Biotechnology. The anti-SUMO-1 (N-term; 38–1990) rabbit polyclonal antibody was obtained from Zymed Laboratories Inc.. The mouse monoclonal antibody against HSV tag (NV591) was purchased from Novagen. Affinity-purified anti-BRG1 antibody was raised as described previously (24). Human adrenal carcinoma SW13 (ATCC CCL-105) and human cervical carcinoma C33a (ATCC HTB31) cells were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum. 293 adenovirus-immortalized human kidney (ATCC CRL-1573) cells were maintained in a 3:1 mixture of minimal essential medium and Waymouth's medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum.

Plasmid Construction and Gene Transfection—The full-length cDNAs of SUMO-1, Aos1, Uba2, and Ubc9 were obtained by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) and subcloned into the pcDNA4/TO/myc-His (pcDNA4) vector (Invitrogen). Primers for PCR were designed based on the following cDNA sequences: SUMO-1 (NCBI accession number NM009460), Aos1 (NM019748), Uba2 (BC054768 [GenBank] ) and Ubc9 (BC037635 [GenBank] ). A vector expressing a nonprocessable version of SUMO-1 (SUMO-1GA) was generated by site-directed mutagenesis of Gly-97 to Ala. The mammalian expression vector pSPORT6/mPIASy (MGC 35863) was purchased from Invitrogen. A pREP4-based luciferase reporter plasmid in which the luciferase gene is under the control of the albumin promoter, pcDNA4/C/EBP{alpha}, pcDNA4/BRG1, pcDNA4/mutBRG1 (ATPase mutant) and pcDNA4/BRM, was described previously (25). Mutant C/EBP{alpha} expression vectors were generated by site-directed mutagenesis by replacing Lys-159 with Ala or Arg. For the expression of GST-fused proteins, the SUMO-1 and C/EBP{alpha} TEI–III regions (amino acids 1–200) were cloned in-frame into the GST expression vector pGEX-5X-2 (Amersham Biosciences). For the expression of HSV-tagged BRG1, the BRG1 helicase domain (amino acids 757–1262) and BRG1 {Delta}E7 (amino acids 714–1308) were also cloned in-frame into pETBlue2 (Novagen) (25). pTS-1, which expresses SUMO-E1 and -E2 ligases and SUMO-1 itself (26), was purchased from Nippon Flour Mills. The inserted DNA sequence of each vector was confirmed by direct DNA sequencing. 293, SW13, and C33a cells and primary fetal hepatocytes were cultured to semiconfluence and transfected with expression plasmids by using lipofection reagent (LipofectamineTM 2000; Invitrogen). The efficiency of gene transfer to fetal hepatocytes was about 80%, and no cytotoxic effects of the reagent were observed.

Luciferase Reporter Assay—SW13 and 293 cells seeded in 24-well plates were transfected with 0.03 µg of the luciferase reporter plasmid and 4 ng of Renilla luciferase expression plasmid containing the promoter region of the elongation factor I{alpha} gene with or without 0.1 µg of the expression plasmid for C/EBP{alpha}, SUMO-1, or SUMO-1GA and 0.4 µg of the expression plasmid for BRG1. The amount of transfected DNA was kept constant by adding empty vector. Luciferase activity was measured with a dual luciferase assay kit (Promega) according to the manufacturer's instructions using a luminometer (Luminescencer JNR II; Atto).

Inhibition of PIASy Expression by siRNA—For the knockdown of PIASy, siRNAs (siPIASy-1, 5'-AACCTTACCCACCTCATGTATCT-3', and siPIASy-2, 5'-ACCTACAAATGAATGAGAAGAAG-3') were synthesized. Cells cultured to semiconfluence were transfected with siRNA (100 pmol/well in a 24-well plate) by using LipofectamineTM 2000 (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Cells were washed twice with phosphate-buffered saline 6 h post-transfection and grown in fresh medium for an additional 42 h.

RT-PCR Analysis—Total RNA was prepared from rat hepatocytes and C33a cells using an EASYPrep RNA kit (Takara), and 1 µg of total RNA was then reverse-transcribed with a reverse transcriptase (ReverTra Ace®; Toyobo) to generate cDNAs. The detection of albumin, GAPDH, PIASy, human dehydrofolate reductase (DHFR), and human proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) cDNAs was performed by PCR using the following as primers: 5'-GCCATTCCAAAGCTTCGTGA-3' and 5'-CGGCGTTTTGGAATCCATAC-3' for rat albumin; 5'-ACCACAGTCCATGCCATCAC-3' and 5'-TCCACCACCCTGTTGCTGTA-3' for GAPDH; 5'-ATGAGACTCGCTATGCCAA-3' and 5'-GCCCGGCACTGAGC-3' for PIASy; 5'-ATGAGACTCGCTATGCCAA-3' and 5'-GCCCGGCACTGAAC-3' for human DHFR; and 5'-AGGTGTTGGAGGCACTC-3' and 5'-CATTTCCAAGTTCTCCAC-3' for human PCNA. Albumin, GAPDH, PIASy, human DHFR, and human PCNA were amplified for 16, 24, 22, 28, and 28 cycles, respectively. These PCRs did not result in saturation. The GAPDH gene served as an internal control in the calculation of the densitometric results.


Figure 1
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  		FIGURE 1.
The amount of sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} gradually decreases during hepatocyte differentiation. A, Western blotting of whole cell lysates of hepatocytes. Hepatocytes were isolated at several stages of differentiation. Cells were lysed and analyzed by immunoblotting with a specific antibody to C/EBP{alpha}. Asterisk, sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} protein; IP, immunoprecipitation; P.C., the extract of SW13 cells overexpressing both C/EBP{alpha} and SUMO-1 as a positive control. B, the shifted band is caused by sumoylation. Whole cell lysates of E14 fetal hepatocytes were precipitated with anti-C/EBP{alpha} antibody and detected with anti-SUMO-1 antibody.

 
Immunoprecipitation and GST Pulldown Assay—Immunoprecipitation and the GST pulldown assay were performed as described previously (25). The GST-C/EBP{alpha} TEI–III, sumoylated GST-C/EBP{alpha} TEI-III, or GST-SUMO-1 fusion protein was expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) and purified using a glutathione-Sepharose column (Amersham Biosciences). Sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} was obtained by introducing both pGEX-C/EBP{alpha} TEI-III and pTS1 into E. coli BL21.

ChIP Assay and Re-precipitation (Re-ChIP)—Immunoprecipitation of formaldehyde cross-linked chromatin from the transfected SW13, C33a cells, and primary hepatocytes was performed using the ChIP assay kit (Upstate%20Biotechnology">Upstate Biotechnology, Inc.) according to the manufacturer's instructions with some modifications (27, 28). The immunoprecipitated DNAs and input DNA were analyzed by PCR using the following as primers: 5'-CATAACTTTAATGAATTGACAAAGC-3' and 5'-GAGAAACTCGCTCTAATATACTTCTC-3' for the rat albumin promoter; 5'-TTTTTGGCAAGGATGGTATG-3' and GLprimer2 (Promega) for the promoter region of the luciferase reporter plasmid (albumin promoter); 5'-GCACTGTGCAGAAGAGCTGG-3' and 5'-CTGCAGCGGCGATCAGACCC-3' for the rat DHFR promoter; and 5'-AGGCTTCCGGCGAGACATGGC-3' and 5'-ATGTTCTGGGACACAGCGACGATGC-3' for the human DHFR promoter. For negative controls, the following were used: 5'-TGTGTTTTCAAGGCTACCCTGA-3' and 5'-GATGAAGGGAGGAAACCGAG-3' for the rat albumin coding region; 5'-CTGGGCAGAATCAGCAGC-3' and 5'-GCATACCACTCCTCATTATTTTAT-3' for the rat DHFR-coding region; and 5'-TAAGGCCTGAACAAGGGCAG-3' and 5'-CCCACGCCTGAAATTATCCT-3' for the human DHFR-coding region.


Figure 2
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  		FIGURE 2.
Sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} down-regulates the albumin promoter. A, the albumin expression level increases during hepatocyte differentiation. RT-PCR assays were carried out on RNAs extracted from hepatocytes at several different stages of differentiation. B, luciferase reporter assay of the albumin promoter with sumoylated C/EBP{alpha}. 293 cells were transfected with the pREP4-albumin promoter luciferase reporter plasmid together with pGL3-EF-renilla, C/EBP{alpha}, and the mutant expression plasmids as indicated. Luciferase activity was measured 48 h post-transfection. Values represent the average of three independent transfections (± S.E.) after normalization against the internal control (Renilla activity). Lysates of luciferase samples were separated by SDS-PAGE and probed with anti-C/EBP{alpha} antibody. Asterisk, sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} protein; wt, wild type; P.C., the extract of SW13 cells overexpressing both C/EBP{alpha} and SUMO-1 as a positive control.

 
Proliferation Assay—The transfected cells were seeded at a density of 2 x 104 cells per well. Every 24 h, cells were harvested, and the number of living cells was determined by the trypan blue dye exclusion method.

Two-dimensional Gel-Western Blotting—The cell lysates were separated by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis with immobiline IEF (Amersham Biosciences) as described previously (29), and proteins were transferred to the membrane and detected with anti-C/EBP{alpha} rabbit antibody.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} Levels Decrease during Hepatocyte Differentiation—Primary fetal and adult hepatocytes were used to study the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} because C/EBP{alpha} is known to play important roles in the liver development (13). As shown in Fig. 1A, a shifted band attributable to modified C/EBP{alpha} was detected at an early stage in the differentiation of hepatocytes (E13–15), and the intensity of the band decreased in the late stages of the differentiation process. The shifted band seemed to be sumoylated C/EBP{alpha}, because the mobility of the band detected in SW13 cells cotransfected with the C/EBP{alpha} and SUMO-1 expression vectors was consistent with that of the putative sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} in the primary hepatocytes. We then performed an immunoprecipitation assay to confirm whether this shifted band was indeed SUMO-1-modified C/EBP{alpha}. As shown in Fig. 1B, the putative sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} precipitated with the anti-C/EBP{alpha} antibody reacted with the anti-SUMO-1 antibody. We therefore concluded that the shifted C/EBP{alpha} band was generated by sumoylation.


Figure 3
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  		FIGURE 3.
Sumoylation affects albumin expression in fetal hepatocytes. A, various combinations of expression vectors (0.1 µg (+) or 0.3 µg (++)) and siRNA (100 pmol) were introduced into E14 fetal hepatocytes. RT-PCR assays were carried out with RNAs extracted from hepatocytes 48 h post-transfection. Amplification of albumin cDNA was initiated by denaturation at 95 °C for 2 min, followed by amplification at 95 °C for 15 s, 55 °C for 30 s, and 68 °C for 1 min. That of GAPDH cDNA was initiated by denaturation at 95 °C for 2 min, followed by amplification at 95 °C for 15 s, 55 °C for 30 s, and 68 °C for 30 s. The data shown were acquired from at least three independent runs and represent the mean ± S.E. B, siRNA of PIASy represses and overexpression of PIASy increases sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha}. The lysates of transfected hepatocytes were analyzed by immunoblotting with anti-C/EBP{alpha} antibody. Asterisk, sumoylated C/EBP{alpha}. Lane numbers correspond to A. C, RT-PCR assay of albumin expression in primary E15 fetal hepatocytes transfected with the SUMO-1 expression vector alone. D, the PIASy expression level decreases during hepatocyte differentiation. RT-PCR assays were carried out on RNAs extracted from hepatocytes at three different stages of differentiation. CBB, Coomassie Brilliant Blue.

 
Modification of C/EBP{alpha} by SUMO-1 Has a Repressive Effect on the Transactivation of the Albumin Promoter—As indicated above, we demonstrated that the C/EBP{alpha} protein was sumoylated in vivo. Thus, a question is raised regarding the function of the sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} protein. It is well recognized that the liver-specific expression of several genes such as those for albumin, {alpha}-fetoprotein, and tyrosine aminotransferase at least partly depends on C/EBP{alpha} (30–32). Because the level of sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} protein present in primary hepatocytes decreased during differentiation, we hypothesized that liver-specific gene expression is controlled partly by the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha}. The expression of the albumin gene increased during hepatocyte differentiation (Fig. 2A), and the expression showed a pattern roughly opposite that of sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} protein. Therefore, we analyzed the effect of sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} on albumin gene expression by conducting luciferase reporter assays in 293 cells that do not contain endogenous C/EBP{alpha}, with the luciferase vector and the expression vectors for C/EBP{alpha} and SUMO-1. C/EBP{alpha}-mediated expression from the albumin promoter was repressed by SUMO-1 (Fig. 2B). The transcription from the albumin promoter was not affected by the expression of SUMO-1 alone in the absence of C/EBP{alpha}.

The expression of albumin is facilitated by both C/EBP{alpha} and hepatocyte nuclear factor-1 (HNF-1), and these transcription factors have additive effects on the expression (23). Therefore, to confirm that the modification of C/EBP{alpha} by SUMO-1 directly affects C/EBP{alpha}-mediated transcription, lysine 159 at the SUMO attachment site was replaced with either alanine or arginine. As can be seen in Fig. 2B, these mutations relieved the repression. Thus, it seems likely that SUMO-1 expression directly repressed C/EBP{alpha}-mediated transactivation of the albumin gene, and we can rule out the possibility that other transcription factors such as HNF-1 present in 293 cells are involved in the SUMO-1-mediated repression of the albumin gene.

Attachment of SUMO-1 to C/EBP{alpha} Represses Liver-specific Albumin Expression in Primary Hepatocytes—To show that the sumoylation represses the transactivation by C/EBP{alpha} in primary hepatocytes, the C/EBP{alpha}-mediated expression of the albumin gene was monitored by RT-PCR in primary fetal hepatocytes transfected with expression vectors for SUMO-1, E3 ligase PIASy (9), E1 enzyme Aos1/Uba2, and E2 enzyme Ubc9 (8). The simultaneous transfection of SUMO-1 and E1–E3 ligases reduced the expression of the albumin gene in fetal hepatocytes (Fig. 3A, lanes 3–5). A detailed analysis of the expression of albumin following the transfection of several combinations of SUMO E1–E3 ligases showed that exogenously expressed E1 and E2 enzymes had little effect on albumin expression without PIASy (supplemental Fig. S1, A and B). On the other hand, exogenously expressed PIASy alone decreased the albumin expression to 70% of the control level, suggesting that the E3 ligase may be a key for sumoylation in fetal liver, although E1–E3 ligases act cooperatively for sufficient sumoylation. In addition to the overexpression of SUMO-1 and its ligases, we also performed siRNA experiments for blocking the expression of PIASy. With siRNA for PIASy (siPIASy-1), albumin expression increased 2-fold compared with that in control E14-hepatocytes (Fig. 3A, compare lanes 1 and 2). To exclude the off-target effect of siRNA, another siPIASy was designed (siPIASy-2). RT-PCR assay showed that this siPIASy also increased the expression of albumin (supplemental Fig. S1C). Because some C/EBP{alpha} was sumoylated in E13–15 hepatocytes, it is possible that the decrease in sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} caused the increase in the expression of albumin.


Figure 4
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  		FIGURE 4.
Sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} dramatically decreases the cooperation between BRG1 and C/EBP{alpha} in albumin expression. A, schematic representation of the domain structure of C/EBP{alpha} protein. The transactivation elements (TE) I, II, and III, basic leucine zipper DNA-binding domain (bZip), SUMO-1-conjugation site, and BRG1 (BRM)-binding site are indicated. B, ChIP assays were performed using anti-BRG1 antibody with SW13 cells that were transfected with 0.3 µg of pREP4-albumin promoter luciferase reporter plasmid and various combinations of expression vectors. The albumin promoter was detected by PCR amplification. C, sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} does not interact with BRG1. 293 cells were cotransfected with C/EBP{alpha} and SUMO-1 or with C/EBP{alpha} alone, and immunoprecipitation (IP) was performed with anti-C/EBP{alpha} antibody followed by Western blotting using anti-BRG1 antibody. D, production of GST-fused proteins and sumoylation in E. coli. Total lysates from E. coli cells harboring pGEX-C/EBP{alpha} TEI-III alone (lane 1), or plus pTS-1 (lane 2) and pGEX-SUMO-1 (lane 3) were incubated with glutathione-Sepharose 4B beads, and the bound proteins were analyzed by SDS-PAGE followed by Coomassie Blue staining. E, GST pulldown assay using purified BRG1 protein. First, 3 µg of purified HSV-tagged BRG1 helicase domain in 500 µl of binding buffer and glutathione-Sepharose 4B beads containing GST-fused proteins were incubated. The beads were then washed, and absorbed proteins were analyzed by Western blotting with anti-BRG1 antibody. F, pulldown assay with BRG1 as the bait. His-tagged BRG1 (amino acids 719–1308) was attached to TALON beads (Clontech). GST-sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} TEI-III protein (10 µg) in 500 µl of PBS, and TALON beads containing purified His-tagged-BRG1 were incubated. The beads were then washed and spun down. Proteins absorbed to the beads were analyzed by SDS-PAGE followed by Coomassie Blue staining. Asterisk, GST-sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} TEI-III protein. Arrowhead, GST-C/EBP{alpha} TEI-III protein. Ppt., precipitated resin fraction. G, luciferase reporter assay shows that sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} hampers activation of albumin gene expression by BRG1. SW13 cells were transfected with the pREP4-albumin promoter luciferase reporter plasmid together with pGL3-EF-renilla and various combinations of expression plasmids. Lysates of luciferase samples were analyzed by Western blotting with anti-C/EBP{alpha} and anti-BRG1 antibodies. Asterisk, sumoylated C/EBP{alpha}. P.C., the extract of SW13 cells overexpressing both C/EBP{alpha} and SUMO-1 as a positive control. H, C/EBP{alpha} mutants interact with BRG1. Lysates from C33a cells overexpressing BRG1, and C/EBP{alpha} and its mutants were immunoprecipitated with anti-C/EBP{alpha} antibody and analyzed by Western blotting using anti-BRG1 antibody.

 
Furthermore, SUMO-1GA, a dominant negative form of SUMO-1, was also tested in the presence of PIASy. Repression of the albumin gene was not observed in the primary fetal hepatocytes cotransfected with the SUMO-1GA and PIASy expression vectors. Furthermore, the level of albumin was higher than that in the nontransfected control (Fig. 3A, lanes 3 and 6). This result indicated that PIASy alone did not directly repress the transcription, although it was recently reported that PIASy represses androgen receptor target genes independent of sumoylation (33). Moreover, the above results suggest that the sumoylation of unidentified factors that affect albumin expression as well as the endogenous sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} in fetal hepatocytes may be inhibited because PIASy has relatively broad substrate specificity for sumoylation (34–37), and SUMO-1GA can affect all cellular sumoylation.

To confirm that sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} is indeed important, C/EBP{alpha} expression was blocked by siRNA. siRNA for C/EBP{alpha} reduced albumin expression in fetal hepatocytes (supplemental Fig. S2). Under conditions where C/EBP{alpha} expression was reduced by the siRNA, SUMO-1 and SUMO E1–E3 ligases had no effect on albumin levels, suggesting again that sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} affects albumin expression. Together, the above results suggest that sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} represses the expression of the albumin gene in the chromosomal environment in hepatocytes, although sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} was not dominant.

The siRNA for PIASy indeed reduced the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha}, and the overexpression of the ligase increased the modification in hepatocytes in vivo as shown in Fig. 3B. This observation indicates the importance of the E3 ligase in the sumoylation. To clarify this point, we transfected the SUMO-1 expression vector alone into primary fetal hepatocytes. Contrary to the experiments performed in Fig. 3A, the transfection of SUMO-1 had no effect on the expression of albumin (Fig. 3C). These results imply that the SUMO E3 ligase is essential for controlling the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} in hepatocytes. We therefore determined the relative expression levels of PIASy mRNA in hepatocytes by using RT-PCR (Fig. 3D). The expression of PIASy decreased in the late stages of differentiation and became undetectable in adult hepatocytes. This result is clearly consistent with the finding that the amount of sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} decreased with the development of the liver as shown in Fig. 1A. In 293, SW13, and C33a cells, considerable levels of PIASy were detected (data not shown).

Modification of C/EBP{alpha} by SUMO-1 Decreases the Cooperation between BRG1 and C/EBP{alpha}—We tried to elucidate the molecular mechanism by which sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} repressed albumin expression. We and other groups have shown that C/EBP{alpha} interacts with BRG1, an ATPase subunit of SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex (14) and C/EBP{alpha}-mediated transactivation of the albumin gene is enhanced by the SWI/SNF complex in hepatocytes (25). Because the binding site for BRG1 in C/EBP{alpha} overlaps with the SUMO-1 conjugation site (Fig. 4A), it is possible that the sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} protein is unable to bind to BRG1. Thus, the recruitment of BRG1 to the albumin promoter by free and sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} was analyzed by conducting a ChIP assay using SW13 cells cotransfected with different combinations of the expression vectors for C/EBP{alpha}, SUMO-1, SUMO ligases, and BRG1. SW13 cells are BRG1- and C/EBP{alpha}-negative. In the cells transfected with both BRG1 and C/EBP{alpha}, BRG1 bound to the albumin promoter through the C/EBP{alpha} protein. However, in the cells cotransfected with expression vectors for C/EBP{alpha}, SUMO-1, and SUMO ligases, BRG1 did not bind to the promoter (Fig. 4B). Immunoprecipitation assays using the lysates of the 293 cells that were transfected with C/EBP{alpha} alone and C/EBP{alpha} plus SUMO-1 expression vectors were performed to show that sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} blocks the binding of C/EBP{alpha} to BRG1. Because more than half of the C/EBP{alpha} was unsumoylated in this experiment, the BRG1 band could be detected with sumoylated C/EBP{alpha}, but the decrease in intensity was obvious (Fig. 4C). Thus, we speculated that the sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} failed to form this complex. To confirm the result of the immunoprecipitation experiments with a GST pulldown assay, GST-C/EBP{alpha} TEI–III or sumoylated GST-C/EBP{alpha} TEI–III (Fig. 4D), and the HSV-tagged BRG1 helicase domain were purified. Since we showed previously that C/EBP{alpha} binds to the helicase domain of BRG1 (25), the HSV-tagged helicase domain was used in this experiment. It is likely that sumoylated GST-C/EBP{alpha} TEI–III could not interact with the helicase domain of BRG1 (Fig. 4E). The weak band in the lane of sumoylated GST-C/EBP{alpha} TEI–III was probably caused by the unsumoylated protein. To clarify this point, an additional pulldown assay of GST-sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} TEI–III with His-tagged BRG1 (amino acids 714–1308) containing the helicase domain as bait was performed. In this experiment, TALON His tag affinity resin was used to pull down His-tagged BRG1. As shown in Fig. 4F, only unsumoylated C/EBP{alpha} was found to bind the His-tagged BRG1 protein. This experiment clearly revealed that BRG1 did not interact with sumoylated C/EBP{alpha}. Together with the results of the ChIP assay, the results of the immunoprecipitation and GST and His-tag pulldown experiments suggest that the attachment of SUMO-1 to C/EBP{alpha} inhibits the recruitment of BRG1 to the albumin promoter.


Figure 5
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  		FIGURE 5.
Binding of sumoylated proteins at the albumin promoter dramatically changes during liver development. A, ChIP assays were performed with primary fetal and adult hepatocytes. The albumin promoter and coding region were detected by PCR amplification. IP, immunoprecipitation. B, ChIP with anti-C/EBP{alpha} and re-ChIP with anti-SUMO-1 of the albumin promoter in fetal E14 hepatocytes. IgG was used for a negative control. The albumin promoter and coding regions were detected by PCR amplification.

 
We performed a luciferase reporter assay to test the hypothesis that the attachment of SUMO-1 prevents the activity of C/EBP{alpha} by inhibiting the recruitment of SWI/SNF. Coexpression of C/EBP{alpha} and BRG1 proteins resulted in an enhancement of C/EBP{alpha}-mediated transcription of 7-fold in SW13 cells. In contrast, the cotransfection of C/EBP{alpha} with both BRG1 and SUMO-1 expression vectors significantly decreased the transactivation by C/EBP{alpha} (Fig. 4G). As judged by Western blotting, about 30% of C/EBP{alpha} was sumoylated under these conditions. Contrary to wild-type C/EBP{alpha}, mutant C/EBP{alpha} relieved the repression. These findings clearly indicate that the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} reduced its transactivation by inhibiting the cooperation with SWI/SNF. We also confirmed that C/EBP{alpha} mutants interacted with BRG1 (Fig. 4H).

Sumoylated Proteins Occupy the Albumin Promoter of Fetal Hepatocytes—To determine whether the sumoylated proteins can associate with the albumin promoter, we performed a ChIP assay using an antibody against SUMO-1 with fetal and adult hepatocytes. As shown in Fig. 5A, sumoylated proteins were found to be present at the albumin promoter of fetal hepatocytes but not at the adult hepatocytes. This result was consistent with the expression pattern of sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} in the developing liver. The sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} protein probably still has DNA binding activity, considering that the DNA-binding domain is located at the C terminus of the protein. To assess whether the sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} protein binds to the albumin promoter, re-ChIP was performed with serial precipitation using anti-C/EBP{alpha} and anti-SUMO-1 antibodies. The result shown in Fig. 5B revealed that C/EBP{alpha} and SUMO-1 were recruited to the albumin promoter in fetal hepatocytes. Although the possibility that other sumoylated proteins bind to C/EBP{alpha} on the albumin promoter cannot be excluded, it is possible that sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} exists on the albumin promoter in fetal hepatocytes.


Figure 6
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  		FIGURE 6.
Attachment of SUMO-1 to C/EBP{alpha} hampers the C/EBP{alpha}-mediated proliferation arrest. A and B, proliferation arrest of 293 cells transfected with C/EBP{alpha} and SUMO-1 expression vectors. Control cells were transfected with an empty vector. [3H]Thymidine was added 48 h post-transfection, and cells were cultured for 12 h. Cells were harvested, and [3H]thymidine incorporation was measured. Whole cell extracts were examined by immunoblotting using anti-C/EBP{alpha} antibody. Asterisk, sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} (A). Cell proliferation was assessed directly under a microscope. The data shown were acquired from at least three independent experiments and represent the mean ± S.E. (B). C, proliferation arrest of C33a cells by C/EBP{alpha} and BRG1. C33a cells were transfected with expression vectors for C/EBP{alpha}, its mutants, and SUMO-1, and proliferation was measured by direct cell counting in the absence (upper panel) and presence (lower panel) of BRG1. CBB, Coomassie Brilliant Blue. D, proliferation arrest of SW13 cells by C/EBP{alpha} and BRG1. Experimental conditions were the same as in Fig. 6C. E, proliferation arrest of C33a cells by C/EBP{alpha} and BRM. Experimental conditions were the same as those shown in Fig. 6C. Cell proliferation was evaluated by measuring [3H]thymidine incorporation. F, sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} does not interact with BRG1, leading to a disruption of the proliferation-inhibitory complex. Lysates from C33a cells overexpressing various combinations of C/EBP{alpha}, BRG1, and SUMO-1 were immunoprecipitated (IP) with anti-C/EBP{alpha} antibody and analyzed by Western blotting using anti-BRG1 antibody. Asterisk, sumoylated C/EBP{alpha}.

 
Sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} Leads to the Disruption of the Proliferation-Inhibitory Complex—It has been demonstrated by several groups that C/EBP{alpha} induces an inhibition of cell proliferation (18–22). To examine the effect of sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} on cell proliferation, first the thymidine incorporation was measured with the 293 cells transfected with the C/EBP{alpha} expression vector alone. The transfection efficiency of the plasmid was more than 80% with the GFP expression vector under the same conditions. C/EBP{alpha} seemed to partly inhibit cell proliferation, but the cells transfected with both the C/EBP{alpha} and SUMO-1 expression vectors were released from the inhibition (Fig. 6A). A similar result was obtained by directly counting the cells (Fig. 6B). These results suggested that sumoylation blocks the C/EBP{alpha}-mediated inhibition of cell proliferation. To address the molecular mechanism of this phenomenon, we analyzed the effects of BRG1 on C/EBP{alpha}-mediated proliferation arrest, because a recent study demonstrated that C/EBP{alpha} required an SWI/SNF complex for proliferation arrest (21). The BRG1/BRM-defective C33a cells did not show C/EBP{alpha}-induced proliferation arrest, and the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} did not influence the cell proliferation as shown in Fig. 6C (upper panel). In contrast, the overexpression of BRG1 rendered these cells sensitive to C/EBP{alpha}-mediated arrest as a consequence of the reconstitution of a functional SWI/SNF complex. Moreover, upon the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha}, the proliferative activity was restored to the control level (Fig. 6C, lower panel). Furthermore, the cells transfected with Lys-159 mutants did not resume proliferating when SUMO-1 was expressed. We confirmed these results using another BRG1/BRM-defective cell line, SW13, by performing direct cell counting (Fig. 6D) and a thymidine incorporation assay (data not shown). We also confirmed that BRM, another core subunit of the SWI/SNF complex, caused C/EBP{alpha}-mediated proliferation arrest with C33a cells and that the arrest was released in the presence of SUMO-1 by conducting the thymidine incorporation assay (Fig. 6E). The results of the proliferation assay of the transfected C33a cells raised the possibility that C/EBP{alpha} cooperates with the SWI/SNF complex to arrest the proliferation of cells, and the modification of C/EBP{alpha} by SUMO-1 inhibits the recruitment of SWI/SNF, which is indispensable for forming the functional complex for proliferation arrest. To test this, we further performed an immunoprecipitation assay using the lysate of C33a cells transfected with C/EBP{alpha}, BRG1, and SUMO-1. BRG1 was precipitated with unsumoylated C/EBP{alpha}, whereas a smaller amount of BRG1 was precipitated with the sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} sample (Fig. 6F). Together, these results indicate that sumoylation hampers C/EBP{alpha}-mediated proliferation arrest by preventing the recruitment of SWI/SNF.


Figure 7
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  		FIGURE 7.
Sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} regulates recruitment of BRG1 to the DHFR promoter. A, repression of the DHFR promoter by C/EBP{alpha} and BRG1 is relieved by sumoylation. RT-PCR assays were carried out on RNAs extracted from C33a cells transfected with various combinations of expression vectors (0.3 µg of C/EBP{alpha}, 0.4 µg of BRG1, and 0.6 µg of SUMO-1) 48 h post-transfection. B, ATPase activity of BRG1 is required for the repression of the DHFR promoter. RT-PCR assays were carried out on RNAs extracted from C33a cells transfected with combinations of expression vectors (0.3 µg of C/EBP{alpha} and 0.4 µg of BRG1 or mutBRG1) 48 h post-transfection. The cell lysates were analyzed by immunoblotting with anti-BRG1 and anti-C/EBP{alpha} antibodies. C, ATPase activity of BRG1 is required for C/EBP{alpha}-dependent proliferation arrest. C33a cells were transfected with C/EBP{alpha}, and BRG1 or mutBRG1 expression vectors. Control cells were transfected with the BRG1 expression vector alone. Cells were directly counted under a microscope. The data shown were acquired from at least three independent experiments and represent the mean ± S.E. D and E, ChIP assays were performed with C33a cells overexpressing C/EBP{alpha} and BRG1 with or without SUMO-1 (D) and fetal hepatocytes (E). IP, immunoprecipitation. The DHFR promoter and coding region were detected by PCR amplification. F, fetal hepatocytes express Ser-193-phosphorylated C/EBP{alpha}. C/EBP{alpha} from E14 and E17 fetal hepatocytes was analyzed by two-dimensional gel-Western blotting. Positions of Ser-193-phosphorylated isoforms (spots a and b) are shown with arrowheads (22, 40).

 
Sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} Regulates the Recruitment of BRG1 to the DHFR Promoter—To analyze the molecular basis of C/EBP{alpha}-mediated proliferation arrest and its control by sumoylation, we first analyzed the repression of typical cell cycle regulator genes by C/EBP{alpha} as it was proposed that C/EBP{alpha} physically associates with E2F and hampers E2F-dependent transcription (38, 39). RT-PCR analysis showed that the expression of DHFR but not PCNA was inhibited by C/EBP{alpha} with the cooperation of BRG1, and the repression was released by the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} (Fig. 7A). This is consistent with the recent observation that a class of E2F-dependent promoters of S-phase genes, including the DHFR, E2F-1, and cyclin A genes, contain a C/EBP{alpha}-binding site but other E2F-dependent promoters do not (22). We then studied whether a functional BRG1 is essential for the repression of DHFR. RT-PCR analysis was performed with a mutant BRG1 (mutBRG1) that lacks ATPase activity. As shown in Fig. 7B, wild-type BRG1 down-regulated the gene expression from the DHFR promoter, but mutBRG1 did not affect the promoter activity indicating that the ATPase activity and possibly the remodeling activity are essential for the suppression. Consistent with the RT-PCR analysis, mutBRG1 did not hamper the proliferation of C33a cells following a transient transfection (Fig. 7C). We then investigated the binding of BRG1 to the DHFR promoter in vivo using a ChIP assay. As shown in Fig. 7D, BRG1 was recruited to the DHFR promoter with C/EBP{alpha} and E2Fs in the nonproliferating C33a cells. However, in the proliferating cells in which C/EBP{alpha}, BRG1, and SUMO-1 were overexpressed, BRG1 was not detected at the promoter site.

We also studied the formation of a proliferation-inhibitory complex on the DHFR promoter of fetal hepatocytes from E14 and E18 rats by ChIP assay. In our experience, E14 hepatocytes have the potential to grow in culture, but E18 cells have all but lost this ability. As can be seen in Fig. 7E, although C/EBP{alpha} was also present on the DHFR promoter in these hepatocytes, the binding of SUMO-1 and BRG1 was dramatically different between E14 and E18 hepatocytes; BRG1 was not found at the DHFR promoter in E14 proliferating hepatocytes but could be detected in E18 hepatocytes. Furthermore, anti-SUMO-1 antibody precipitated with the promoter region in E14 but not E18 hepatocytes. To date, a sumoylated protein bound to the promoter in E14 hepatocytes has not been identified, but it is possible that sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} bound to the promoter. These results were consistent with the finding that the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} disrupted the proliferation-inhibitory complex.

Recently, it was reported that the C/EBP{alpha}-mediated arrest of cell proliferation is regulated by the dephosphorylation of C/EBP{alpha} at Ser-193, which blocks interaction with Cdk2 and BRM in hepatocytes after a partial hepatectomy (22, 40). To analyze the phosphorylation of C/EBP{alpha} in fetal hepatocytes, we performed two-dimensional gel-Western blotting. As shown in Fig. 7F, the spots caused by the phosphorylation of Ser-193 appeared in both E14 and E17 hepatocytes (spots a and b) as reported by Wang et al. (22, 40). This suggests that C/EBP{alpha} was phosphorylated, and the binding of BRG1 to C/EBP{alpha} is mainly controlled by sumoylation but not phosphorylation during hepatic development. Therefore, it is suggested that the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} might act as a switch from growth arrest to cell proliferation.


   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
 
We demonstrated that the level of sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} decreased during liver development, and inversely, the level of albumin increased. These findings suggest that the sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} repressed the expression of the albumin gene. We discovered that the attachment of SUMO-1 to C/EBP{alpha} inhibited the recruitment of the SWI/SNF complex that enhanced C/EBP{alpha}-mediated transactivation of the albumin gene in hepatocytes. This finding suggests that SUMO-1 acts as a spatial regulator and that sumoylation affects protein-protein interactions. Our observations are in general consistent with recently published results on the regulation of the human TFIID complex assembly on the promoter via sumoylation (41). Furthermore, Ledl et al. (42) showed that the sumoylation of Rb is inhibited by viral oncoproteins, and cellular inhibitors of Rb function by binding to the Rb pocket domains. Sumoylation regulates the activity of proteins by altering certain protein-protein interactions. It is therefore possible that the sumoylation of a transcription factor inhibits the recruitment of other protein factors and hampers the formation of a pre-initiation complex at a certain promoter. This model allows for SUMO-induced changes in the activity of transcription factors without novel regulators.

In several transcription factors, a synergetic control region has been identified, and putative synergetic control factors have been proposed (9, 43, 44). Recently, SUMO was found to take part in the control of transcriptional synergy (45, 46). The attachment of SUMO-1 to C/EBP{alpha} prevents the recruitment of the SWI/SNF complex to the promoter. In addition, it is possible that sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} recruits a repressor complex such as a histone deacetylase (HDAC). Indeed, there have been several reports of the SUMO-mediated recruitment of HDAC. Girdwood et al. (47) demonstrated that the transcriptional coactivator p300 has two tandem SUMO modification sites within the cell cycle regulatory domain 1 (CRD1), and SUMO-dependent transcriptional repression of p300 is mediated by the recruitment of HDAC6 to CRD1. The histone H4 was recently reported to be modified by SUMO-1 and SUMO-3, and sumoylated H4 mediates gene silencing through the recruitment of heterochromatin protein 1 and HDAC1 (48). Furthermore, the ETS domain transcription factor Elk-1 is negatively regulated by sumoylation, and the modification of Elk-1 by SUMO-1 results in the recruitment of HDAC2 to promoters. Sumoylation of Elk-1 is reversed by ERK-MAPK (extracellular signal-regulated kinase-mitogen-activated protein kinase) (49). Although HDAC2 does not seem to be involved in the activity of sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} (49), it is still possible that the sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} recruits other HDACs. In fact, we currently observed that the HDAC inhibitor tricostatin A derepressed the sumoylated C/EBP{alpha}-dependent down-regulation of albumin expression (data not shown). Therefore, we cannot rule out the possibility that the down-regulation of albumin gene expression by sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} was an integral effect of HDACs and the removal of BRG1. To clarify this point, further studies are required.

Our results show that levels of sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} were low in developing hepatocytes as reported for other sumoylated proteins (43, 50–52). Furthermore, in almost all of our experiments, the biological effects of sumoylation were profound, although the level of sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} was less than half of the total level of C/EBP{alpha}. The sumoylation of proteins is considered to be transient (53). Therefore, sumoylation is a rapid and reversible process, and target proteins are conjugated and deconjugated over short periods of time, which is nevertheless sufficient to affect their biological activities. In fact, sumoylation of the glucocorticoid receptor (43) and sterol regulatory element-binding protein (50) has profound effects on transcriptional activity, although the levels of the sumoylated transcription factors in cells are very low.

C/EBP{alpha} also shows a major inhibitory effect on cell proliferation by using several mechanisms involving cooperation with the SWI/SNF complex, Cdks, or p21 depending on the cell types and experimental systems (reviewed in Ref. 54), and it is possible that more than one mechanism works under physiological conditions. With C33a and SW13 cells, Müller et al. (21) reported that the C/EBP{alpha}-BRM complex seems to be responsible for proliferation arrest. Our observation is clearly consistent with these results. In addition to BRM/BRG1, Cdks and p21 are known to associate with the TEIII region of C/EBP{alpha} (18, 19). It is accepted that the binding of p21 to C/EBP{alpha} increases its stability and activity (19, 55). The Cdk2, Cdk4, and p21-binding sites on C/EBP{alpha} are amino acids 119–160 and 175–188, 175–188, and 119–226, respectively. These findings suggest that the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} hampers the binding of these factors. As far as we have found, the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} blocked the binding of p21 and Cdk4.4 Thus, it is reasonably assumed that sumoylation has the potential to inhibit the formation of other types of inhibitory complexes.

Our experiments showed that the overexpression of C/EBP{alpha} led to a significant reduction in cell proliferation in the presence of BRG1 and BRM (Fig. 6, C and E), and sumoylation blocked the C/EBP{alpha}-mediated proliferation arrest through disruption of the proliferation-inhibitory complex (complexes). In hepatocytes, the ability to proliferate is gradually lost during differentiation. It has been proposed that the disappearance of the S-phase-specific E2F-Cdk-cyclin A-p107 complex causes proliferation arrest in fetal liver (55). In this study, we demonstrated that the cooperation between unsumoylated C/EBP{alpha} and BRG1 leads to repression of DHFR and probably causes proliferation arrest in fetal hepatocytes. Recently, it was reported that BRG1/BRM down-regulates gene expression by altering chromatin structure (56–58). Therefore, it is reasonable to suggest that BRG1 inhibits the expression of the DHFR gene. We speculate that the C/EBP{alpha}-SWI/SNF inhibitory complex in addition to the disruption of the S-phase complex causes cell proliferation to arrest in fetal liver after the late stages of hepatocyte differentiation. It is quite likely that the C/EBP{alpha}-mediated arrest is regulated by several mechanisms depending on cell type, age, and the stage of differentiation. Our data provide new insight into how the sumoylation of C/EBP{alpha} maintains an undifferentiated status and mitotic activity.

In summary, our results show that the modification of C/EBP{alpha} by SUMO-1 alters the interaction of binding partners and that levels of sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} decrease during liver development as a consequence of the decrease in the expression of its E3 ligase. Our findings suggest that sumoylated C/EBP{alpha} acts as a key regulator of gene expression during the differentiation of hepatocytes and an inhibitor of the C/EBP{alpha}-mediated arrest of cell proliferation.


   FOOTNOTES
 
* The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact. Back

Formula The on-line version of this article (available at http://www.jbc.org) contains supplemental Figs. S1 and S2. Back

1 Present address: Dept. of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, and Division of Virology, Aichi Cancer Center Research Institute, Nagoya 464-8681, Japan. Back

2 To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel.: 81-52-789-4278; Fax: 81-52-789-3221; E-mail: miyake{at}proc.nubio.nagoya-u.ac.jp.

3 The abbreviations used are: SUMO, small ubiquitin-related modifier; PIASy, protein inhibitor of activated STAT; C/EBP{alpha}, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein {alpha}; BRG1, Brm-related gene 1; Cdk, cyclin-dependent kinase; RT, reverse transcription; GST, glutathione S-transferase; GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; DHFR, dihydrofolate reductase; PCNA, proliferating cell nuclear antigen; ChIP, chromatin immunoprecipitation; HNF-1, hepatocyte nuclear factor-1; HDAC, histone deacetylase; E1, SUMO-activating enzyme; E2, SUMO carrier protein; E3, SUMO-protein isopeptide ligase; HSV, herpes simplex virus; siRNA, short interfering RNA; E, embryonic day; Rb, retinoblastoma protein. Back

4 Y. Sato, K. Miyake, and S. Iijima, unpublished observations. Back


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
We thank Dr. K. Nakashima (Kumamoto University) for the Renilla luciferase vector containing the elongation factor I{alpha} promoter region.



   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 

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